Often handed to AI
Task areas most often handled directively in observed AI conversations — candidates to delegate with light review.
- Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. · 0.4%
Marketing Managers
Occupation · SOC 11-2021.00
Plan, direct, or coordinate marketing policies and programs, such as determining the demand for products and services offered by a firm and its competitors, and identify potential customers. Develop pricing strategies with the goal of maximizing the firm's profits or share of the market while ensuring the firm's customers are satisfied. Oversee product development or monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services.
Also called: Brand Manager · Business Development Manager · Marketing Director · Marketing Manager · Account Supervisor · Business Development Director · Commercial Lines Manager · Market Development Executive · Marketing Coordinator · Product Manager · Business Developer · Category Manager
Job family: Management Occupations
Take this to your AI
A source-stamped Markdown brief of this occupation — paste it into an agent, or fetch
/roles/role-11-2021-00/context.md directly.
AI work map
A fast read on where AI already shows up in this occupation, where it stays a copilot, where humans remain in the loop, and what the labor market is doing. Built from observed Claude.ai conversations mapped to O*NET tasks and from published research — measures of usage and exposure, not advice or predictions that the job is going away.
Use as a copilot
Task areas where people work with AI — iterating, learning, or checking — staying in the loop rather than handing the task off.
- Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. · 3.5%
- Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. · 2.7%
- Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. · 1.3%
Keep a human in the loop
Task areas where a human was still judged necessary in a large share of observed conversations — not a safety ruling, an observed-need signal.
- Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. · 100.0% need a human
- Advise business or other groups on local, national, or international factors affecting the buying or selling of products or services. · 100.0% need a human
- Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. · 97.5% need a human
Skills it runs on
The capabilities O*NET rates most important for this occupation — the human ground the work is built on.
See all skills →Market signal
Independent published positions, read together — not a forecast.
- About average employment outlook (+6.6% by 2034)
- 34,300 openings/yr
- Moderate AI exposure
- Observed AI use leans augmentation
- Median pay $161,030/yr
- Can largely be done remotely (teleworkable)
- A reversal from 2013 — rated low automation risk then (9th), high AI task-overlap now (81st)
81st-percentile task overlap — yet about 34,300 openings a year (+6.6% projected, BLS), and observed AI use leans 6333% copilot, not hand-off (AEI) . What exposure means →
AI & job outlook
What today's research says about this occupation's exposure to AI, how AI is actually being used in it, and where employment is headed. These are positions within published studies — measures of exposure and usage, not predictions that this job will disappear.
Exposure to current AI
Each study uses its own scale, so the raw scores are not comparable across rows — the percentile (this job's rank among all U.S. occupations with data) is the comparable figure, and sizes the bars.
| Measure | Rank vs all occupations | Percentile | Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| Overall AI exposure (Felten et al.) High | 88th | 1.3 | |
| LLM task exposure, γ (OpenAI / Eloundou) High | 84th | 0.9 | |
| AI assistant applicability (Microsoft) Moderate | 64th | 0.2 |
OpenAI's exposure study scores tasks three ways: with a language model alone (α 0.1), with simple added tooling (β 0.5), and including AI-powered software (γ 0.9). Higher means more of the job's tasks could be done at least twice as fast — not that they will be automated away.
Most of this job's tasks can be done remotely (Dingel–Neiman), which tends to track with higher digital and AI exposure.
Historical automation estimate (2013)
A pre-LLM (2013) estimate of how automatable this job is by computerization and robotics. Shown for historical context only — it is not part of any current AI ranking.
Frey–Osborne probability 0.0 · 9th percentile among occupations · Low
How AI is actually used in this job
Among measured AI assistant conversations mapped to this occupation (Anthropic Economic Index, 2026-01-15), these task types came up most. These are shares of observed AI conversations — not shares of the job, of worker time, or of what could be automated.
| Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. | 1.5% | |
| Advise business or other groups on local, national, or international factors affecting the buying or selling of products or services. | 1.5% | |
| Confer with legal staff to resolve problems, such as copyright infringement or royalty sharing with outside producers or distributors. | 0.5% | |
| Integrate environmental information into product or company marketing strategies, policies, or activities. | 0.3% | |
| Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. | 0.3% | |
| Evaluate the financial aspects of product development, such as budgets, expenditures, research and development appropriations, or return-on-investment and profit-loss projections. | 0.3% |
Job outlook
Independent U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics employment projection for 2024–2034 — a labor-market forecast, not an AI-impact forecast.
| Outlook | About average · +6.6% by 2034 |
| Projected annual openings | 34,300 |
| Employment 2024 → 2034 | 407,000 → 433,700 |
“Annual openings” counts new jobs plus replacements for workers who leave the occupation, so it can be large even when growth is modest.
Where this work sits on the global GenAI gradient
The ILO's 2025 global study scores generative-AI exposure on the international ISCO-08 occupation system, not US SOC. Bridged through the published (and approximate, many-to-many) IBS O*NET-SOC ↔ ISCO-08 crosswalk, this US occupation corresponds to the international occupation below. Exposure here means how much of the work's tasks today's AI can attempt — task overlap, not automation, adoption, or jobs lost.
Marketing Managers sits at the 78th percentile of 427
occupations on the global GenAI task-exposure gradient
— exposure rose from 2023 to 2025. Each dot is one occupation; the
ringed one is this work. Exposure is task overlap, not automation or jobs lost.
41% mean task exposure (2025)
78th percentile of 427 placed occupations
+12 pts shift 2023 → 2025
| International occupation (ISCO-08) | Task exposure (2025) | Most tasks fall in |
|---|---|---|
| Sales and Marketing Managers · 1221 | 41% | Gradient 2 |
Read the whole six-band gradient on the GenAI exposure gradient page. The crosswalk is approximate: a US occupation can map to several international ones, and the ILO scores describe the international occupation, not this exact US role.
Working with AI in this job
How people actually apply AI to this occupation's tasks, from Claude.ai (Free and Pro) conversations in the Anthropic Economic Index, 2026-01-15. This is one AI assistant's consumer sample — not all AI, not the whole workforce. Autonomy and the collaboration mix are model-rated estimates; figures below the sample floor are hidden.
| Augmentation vs. automation | 63.3% working with AI · 25.9% handed to AI |
| Most common way people use AI here | Iteration · you and AI go back and forth |
| Typical AI autonomy | 4.0 / 5 · higher = AI acts more independently |
| Used for work (vs. personal / coursework) | 81.4% |
What people delegate to AI
The role's most common tasks in AI conversations, each tagged with how people work with the AI on it. “Usage” is the share of observed conversations, not of the job.
| Task | How | Usage |
|---|---|---|
| Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. | Iteration | 3.5% |
| Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. | Iteration | 2.7% |
| Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. | Iteration | 1.3% |
| Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. | Directive | 0.4% |
| Advise business or other groups on local, national, or international factors affecting the buying or selling of products or services. | — | 0.4% |
Where a human is still needed
Tasks where the model most often judged that a person remained necessary — a useful read on the current boundary, not a guarantee.
| Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. | 100.0% | |
| Advise business or other groups on local, national, or international factors affecting the buying or selling of products or services. | 100.0% | |
| Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. | 97.5% | |
| Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. | 95.5% | |
| Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. | 92.6% |
What people most often hand AI here
Example prompts phrased from the tasks people most often delegate to AI in this occupation (Anthropic Economic Index). Each shows the underlying measured task and its share of observed AI use. They are suggested phrasings of real tasks — starting points, not endorsed instructions.
-
Help me identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors.From: Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. · 3.5% of measured AI use · task iteration
-
Help me formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers.From: Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. · 2.7% of measured AI use · task iteration
-
Help me develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction.From: Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. · 1.3% of measured AI use · task iteration
-
Help me conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services.From: Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. · 0.4% of measured AI use · directive
Tasks
All 20 tasks O*NET lists for this occupation, ordered by importance. Each links to its own page with AI-exposure and observed-use detail.
- Identify, develop, or evaluate marketing strategy, based on knowledge of establishment objectives, market characteristics, and cost and markup factors. Core · importance 4.3
- Formulate, direct, or coordinate marketing activities or policies to promote products or services, working with advertising or promotion managers. Core · importance 4.2
- Evaluate the financial aspects of product development, such as budgets, expenditures, research and development appropriations, or return-on-investment and profit-loss projections. Core · importance 4.0
- Develop pricing strategies, balancing firm objectives and customer satisfaction. Core · importance 3.9
- Compile lists describing product or service offerings. Core · importance 3.7
- Direct the hiring, training, or performance evaluations of marketing or sales staff and oversee their daily activities. Core · importance 3.7
- Consult with product development personnel on product specifications, such as design, color, or packaging. Core · importance 3.6
- Use sales forecasting or strategic planning to ensure the sale and profitability of products, lines, or services, analyzing business developments and monitoring market trends. Core · importance 3.6
- Negotiate contracts with vendors or distributors to manage product distribution, establishing distribution networks or developing distribution strategies. Core · importance 3.5
- Consult with buying personnel to gain advice regarding environmentally sound or sustainable products. Supplemental · importance 3.4
- Consult with buying personnel to gain advice regarding the types of products or services expected to be in demand. Supplemental · importance 3.4
- Coordinate or participate in promotional activities or trade shows, working with developers, advertisers, or production managers, to market products or services. Core · importance 3.4
- Initiate market research studies, or analyze their findings. Core · importance 3.4
- Conduct economic or commercial surveys to identify potential markets for products or services. Supplemental · importance 3.2
- Confer with legal staff to resolve problems, such as copyright infringement or royalty sharing with outside producers or distributors. Core · importance 3.1
- Recommend modifications to products, packaging, production processes, or other characteristics to improve the environmental soundness or sustainability of products. Supplemental · importance 3.1
- Advise business or other groups on local, national, or international factors affecting the buying or selling of products or services. Supplemental · importance 3.1
- Select products or accessories to be displayed at trade or special production shows. Supplemental · importance 2.7
- Develop business cases for environmental marketing strategies. Supplemental · importance 2.7
- Integrate environmental information into product or company marketing strategies, policies, or activities. Supplemental · importance 2.6
Work activities
- Confer with organizational members to accomplish work activities.
- Develop marketing plans or strategies for environmental initiatives.
- Develop sustainable organizational policies or practices.
- Recommend organizational process or policy changes.
- Develop marketing plans or strategies.
- Direct sales, marketing, or customer service activities.
- Determine pricing or monetary policies.
- Evaluate program effectiveness.
- Analyze data to inform operational decisions or activities.
- Estimate cost or material requirements.
- Supervise employees.
- Negotiate contracts for transportation, distribution, or logistics services.
- Compile operational data.
- Monitor external affairs or events affecting business operations.
- Analyze market research data.
- Analyze forecasting data to improve business decisions.
- Coordinate special events or programs.
- Advise others on business or operational matters.
- Conduct opinion surveys or needs assessments.
Knowledge, skills & abilities
O*NET importance rating, from 1 (not important) to 5 (extremely important).
Knowledge
| Sales and Marketing | 4.8 | |
| English Language | 4.5 | |
| Administration and Management | 4.0 | |
| Customer and Personal Service | 3.9 | |
| Communications and Media | 3.8 | |
| Computers and Electronics | 3.5 | |
| Mathematics | 3.5 | |
| Design | 3.1 |
Abilities
| Oral Comprehension | 4.0 | |
| Written Comprehension | 4.0 | |
| Oral Expression | 4.0 | |
| Written Expression | 3.9 | |
| Deductive Reasoning | 3.9 | |
| Fluency of Ideas | 3.8 | |
| Inductive Reasoning | 3.8 | |
| Speech Clarity | 3.8 | |
| Originality | 3.6 | |
| Problem Sensitivity | 3.6 | |
| Speech Recognition | 3.6 | |
| Near Vision | 3.5 | |
| Information Ordering | 3.3 | |
| Category Flexibility | 3.3 |
Essential skills
| Reading Comprehension | 3.9 | |
| Active Listening | 3.9 | |
| Speaking | 3.9 | |
| Critical Thinking | 3.9 | |
| Active Learning | 3.9 | |
| Monitoring | 3.8 | |
| Writing | 3.3 |
Transferable skills
| Social Perceptiveness | 3.9 | |
| Persuasion | 3.8 | |
| Judgment and Decision Making | 3.8 | |
| Negotiation | 3.6 | |
| Complex Problem Solving | 3.6 | |
| Coordination | 3.5 | |
| Systems Evaluation | 3.5 | |
| Time Management | 3.5 | |
| Operations Analysis | 3.4 | |
| Management of Personnel Resources | 3.4 | |
| Systems Analysis | 3.3 |
Skills in demand
Skills employers ask for in job postings for this occupation (Lightcast), with whether each is a common or specialized skill.
Showing the top 40 of 92.
Tools & technology
Showing the top 40 of 154.
Work context
How characteristic each condition is of the job, on O*NET's 1–5 context scale (higher = more present in day-to-day work). Each condition links to how it varies across all occupations.
How to get in
- Job zone
- Zone 4 — Job Zone Four: Considerable Preparation Needed
- Education
- Most of these occupations require a four-year bachelor's degree, but some do not.
- Typical entry-level education
- Bachelor's degree · BLS, the typical path — not a requirement
- Related experience
- A considerable amount of work-related skill, knowledge, or experience is needed for these occupations. For example, an accountant must complete four years of college and work for several years in accounting to be considered qualified.
- Preparation level
- SVP (7.0 to < 8.0) — total schooling plus on-the-job experience.
What to study: Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services , Family and Consumer Sciences/Human Sciences , Health Professions and Related Programs . Fields of study crosswalked to this occupation (NCES CIP–SOC), not a requirement.
Education of current workers
Share of people in this occupation at each level of education.
| Bachelor's Degree | 55.8% | |
| Master's Degree | 24.4% | |
| First Professional Degree | 10.5% | |
| High School Diploma | 3.5% | |
| Associate's Degree (or other 2-year degree) | 3.0% | |
| Some College Courses | 2.8% |
Interests & work styles
The interests and personal qualities O*NET associates with people who do this work.
Work styles
| Dependability | 8.0 | |
| Achievement Orientation | 7.0 | |
| Social Orientation | 6.0 | |
| Adaptability | 5.0 | |
| Innovation | 4.0 | |
| Leadership Orientation | 3.0 |
Career interests (Holland / RIASEC)
| Enterprising | 7.0 | |
| Conventional | 4.7 | |
| Investigative | 2.9 |
Interest areas
| Marketing/Advertising | 6.6 | |
| Management/Administration | 6.5 | |
| Business Initiatives | 6.4 | |
| Public Speaking | 5.0 | |
| Sales | 4.9 | |
| Finance | 3.0 | |
| Accounting | 3.0 |
Wages & employment
U.S. · annual wages (BLS OEWS)
| 10th percentile | $81,900 |
| 25th percentile | $111,210 |
| Median (50th) | $161,030 |
| 75th percentile | $211,080 |
| 90th percentile | — |
| People employed | 384,980 |
Industries that employ this occupation
Where these workers are employed, by number of jobs (national, BLS OEWS). Pay shown is the occupation's national median, not industry-specific.
| Industry | Workers | National median pay |
|---|---|---|
| Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services · Sector | 97,200 | $165,080 |
| Management of Companies and Enterprises · Sector | 50,050 | $169,840 |
| Wholesale Trade · Sector | 40,030 | $158,120 |
| Information · Sector | 39,700 | $178,130 |
| Finance and Insurance · Sector | 36,620 | $167,610 |
| Manufacturing · Sector | 30,150 | $168,210 |
| Administrative and Support and Waste Management and Remediation Services · Sector | 17,030 | $135,030 |
| Health Care and Social Assistance · Sector | 12,370 | $117,020 |
| Retail Trade · Sector | 11,170 | $126,200 |
| Educational Services · Sector | 10,330 | $114,880 |
| Other Services (except Public Administration) · Sector | 9,170 | $123,080 |
| Real Estate and Rental and Leasing · Sector | 7,550 | $123,340 |
Where this work is most concentrated
Industries where this occupation is far more common than in the economy as a whole. The location quotient is how many times more concentrated it is here (a value of 5 means five times its economy-wide share).
| Industry | Concentration | Workers |
|---|---|---|
| Management of Companies and Enterprises · Sector | 7.14× | 50,050 |
| Information · Sector | 5.47× | 39,700 |
| Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services · Sector | 3.61× | 97,200 |
| Radio Broadcasting Stations · National industry | 2.86× | 370 |
| Television Broadcasting Stations · National industry | 2.84× | 460 |
| Direct Health and Medical Insurance Carriers · National industry | 2.67× | 2,990 |
| Wholesale Trade · Sector | 2.66× | 40,030 |
| Newspaper Publishers · National industry | 2.56× | 580 |
Related occupations
Part of the Marketing & Sales career cluster.
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Side-by-side comparisons place two occupations’ pay, preparation, skills, and AI exposure on the same page — same data, same scale, no forecast.
What you can do with this
Options the data surfaces for Marketing Managers — not advice or a forecast. Each is a real cross-link you can follow into the evidence.
Skills that travel
Capabilities this work builds that are used across many other occupations.
Adjacent roles
Occupations O*NET rates as related — the nearby moves on the map.
Paths in
How people typically prepare for this work.
- Bachelor's degree · typical entry level
- Job zone 4 — Job Zone Four: Considerable Preparation Needed · preparation tier
- Business, Management, Marketing, and Related Support Services · field of study
- Family and Consumer Sciences/Human Sciences · field of study
Zoom out
On the global GenAI exposure gradient this work sits around the 78th percentile of 427 international occupations.
Write a report on thisheadline · factoids · citation
Marketing Managers show 81st-percentile AI task overlap — and about 34,300 annual U.S. openings
- Marketing Managers rank in the 81st percentile (High band) for AI task overlap across U.S. occupations — a measure of how much of the work today's AI can attempt, not how much is automated.Eloundou et al. (GPTs are GPTs) + Felten AIOE
- The occupation is projected to see about 34,300 U.S. job openings per year (2024–34), counting growth and replacement — a labor-demand projection made independently of AI.BLS Employment Projections 2024–34
- BLS projects employment to be about average (+6.6%) from 2024 to 2034.BLS Employment Projections 2024–34
- Median annual pay is $161,030, across about 384,980 U.S. workers.BLS OEWS (May 2024)
- Of the AI use actually observed for this work, 63% looks like augmentation (drafting, iterating, checking) rather than hands-off automation — from a Claude.ai usage sample, not a census.2026-01-15-v4-plus-2025-03-27-v2
Copy the whole kit
Marketing Managers show 81st-percentile AI task overlap — and about 34,300 annual U.S. openings • Marketing Managers rank in the 81st percentile (High band) for AI task overlap across U.S. occupations — a measure of how much of the work today's AI can attempt, not how much is automated. (Eloundou et al. (GPTs are GPTs) + Felten AIOE) • The occupation is projected to see about 34,300 U.S. job openings per year (2024–34), counting growth and replacement — a labor-demand projection made independently of AI. (BLS Employment Projections 2024–34) • BLS projects employment to be about average (+6.6%) from 2024 to 2034. (BLS Employment Projections 2024–34) • Median annual pay is $161,030, across about 384,980 U.S. workers. (BLS OEWS (May 2024)) • Of the AI use actually observed for this work, 63% looks like augmentation (drafting, iterating, checking) rather than hands-off automation — from a Claude.ai usage sample, not a census. (2026-01-15-v4-plus-2025-03-27-v2) Source: Singulariki — "Marketing Managers". https://singulariki.com/roles/role-11-2021-00 Note: AI task overlap measures what today's AI can attempt, not automation, job loss, or a forecast.
AssetsShare imageMethodology & sourcesPress & newsroomThe newsroom
Every line is built only from figures this page already shows and cites. AI task overlap means what today's AI can attempt — not automation, job loss, or a forecast.
Sources for this page
Every figure above traces to a named public dataset and the exact release below — not hand-written opinion. See the full methodology for what each measure does and does not mean.
- O*NET 30.3 U.S. Department of Labor / National Center for O*NET Development
- BLS Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics (OEWS) May 2024 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
- BLS Employment Projections 2024–2034 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Anthropic Economic Index v4 (2026-01-15) + v2 (2025-03-27) Anthropic
- Microsoft “Working with AI” working-with-ai Microsoft Research
- “GPTs are GPTs” (Eloundou et al.) arXiv 2303.10130 OpenAI / academic
- AI Occupational Exposure (AIOE) Felten, Raj & Seamans academic
- ILO / Gmyrek et al. GenAI exposure gradient 2025 International Labour Organization
- IBS O*NET-SOC ↔ ISCO-08 occupation crosswalk 2022 Institute for Structural Research (IBS)
- Frey & Osborne (2013) frey-osborne-automation academic
- Dingel & Neiman (2020) dingel-neiman-workathome academic
Data compiled June 2, 2026. Figures are estimates, not advice.
Cite this page
Plain
Singulariki. "Marketing Managers." Singulariki: a source-backed encyclopedia of work. Built from O*NET 30.3; BLS Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics (OEWS) May 2024; BLS Employment Projections 2024–2034; Anthropic Economic Index v4 (2026-01-15) + v2 (2025-03-27); Microsoft “Working with AI” working-with-ai; “GPTs are GPTs” (Eloundou et al.) arXiv 2303.10130; AI Occupational Exposure (AIOE) Felten, Raj & Seamans; ILO / Gmyrek et al. GenAI exposure gradient 2025; IBS O*NET-SOC ↔ ISCO-08 occupation crosswalk 2022; Frey & Osborne (2013) frey-osborne-automation; Dingel & Neiman (2020) dingel-neiman-workathome. Accessed June 7, 2026. https://singulariki.com/roles/role-11-2021-00
APA
Singulariki. (2026). Marketing Managers. Singulariki: a source-backed encyclopedia of work. Retrieved June 7, 2026, from https://singulariki.com/roles/role-11-2021-00
BibTeX
@misc{singulariki-role-11-2021-00,
title = {Marketing Managers},
author = {{Singulariki}},
year = {2026},
note = {O*NET 30.3; BLS Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics (OEWS) May 2024; BLS Employment Projections 2024–2034; Anthropic Economic Index v4 (2026-01-15) + v2 (2025-03-27); Microsoft “Working with AI” working-with-ai; “GPTs are GPTs” (Eloundou et al.) arXiv 2303.10130; AI Occupational Exposure (AIOE) Felten, Raj & Seamans; ILO / Gmyrek et al. GenAI exposure gradient 2025; IBS O*NET-SOC ↔ ISCO-08 occupation crosswalk 2022; Frey & Osborne (2013) frey-osborne-automation; Dingel & Neiman (2020) dingel-neiman-workathome. Accessed June 7, 2026},
url = {https://singulariki.com/roles/role-11-2021-00}
} Citations name the underlying public dataset releases — they reflect what this page is built from, not just the URL.